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Kawakawa Monograph
Botanical Name: Macropiper excelsum
Common Names: Kawakawa, New Zealand Peppertree
Botanical Family: Piperaceae
Part Used: Leaves
Description
Kawakawa is a small evergreen shrub-like tree with large shiny heart-shaped
leaves. It grows to a height of 6m and is commonly found in shady gullies and
on shaded rocky outcrops in coastal regions. The zigzag branches are
swollen and jointed at the nodes. The leaves are approximately 5-10cm long
and are often badly holed by chewing insects. The fruit is a yellow, conical
berry.
Active Constituents:
• Volatile Oil - 1.5-3.5% in the leaves (mostly myristicin)
• Lignans - in the leaves and wood
• Juvadecene & derivatives – in the root
Little else is known, although the presence of other pharmacologically active
compounds such as flavonoids and alkaloids seems likely, based upon analyses of
related species.
Pharmacology
Very little scientific investigation has been undertaken into the pharmacology of
Kawakawa to date. Our understanding of the actions and uses of this plant is
therefore derived largely from information about its historical uses, as well as
knowledge gleamed from present day use by traditional Maori medicine practitioners
and phytotherapists using Kawakawa in their practices.
Primary Actions:
• Anti-dyspeptic
• Anti-inflammatory
• Analgesic
• Alterative/Depurative
• Diaphoretic & Circulatory stimulant
Medicinal Uses:
For the gastrointestinal tract actions as an anti-dyspeptic, antispasmodic, antiinflammatory
and/or carminative seem likely for Kawakawa leaves, based upon
these customary uses, our phytochemical knowledge about the volatile oil, and
experience from clinical practice.
Historically, decoctions or infusions of Kawakawa leaf, or simple chewing of the
leaves, were widely used for stomach pains and indigestion, particularly where due
to over-eating1,2,3,4,5. Use for stomach problems and indigestion is a common theme
for a wide variety of Piper species around the world6. Possible anticholinergic activity
of the volatile oil constituents myristicin and elemicin7, may contribute to
Kawakawa’s efficacy as a digestive aid.
Kawakawa also has a reputation as an appetite stimulant, and it’s mildly bitter
taste probably contributes to this. The root was also chewed for both
dysentery and diarrhoea8.
While no anti-inflammatory activity has been proven for Kawakawa to date, such
activity seems likely upon the gastrointestinal tract and with topical use at least.
Kawakawa leaf applications were used topically for bruises and rheumatism, the
pain of neuralgia and nettle stings, as well as for eczema9,2,10,11,12,13,14. Antiinflammatory
activity has been shown for volatile oil constituents such as myristicin
and elemicin15,16.
Leaves and fruit of Kawakawa were frequently chewed for toothache in times gone
by2. Volatile oil constituents related to eugenol, a main constituent with analgesic
activity found in oil of Cloves17, are probably contributory. The leaves of various
related Piper species are also used to relieve toothache and other pains6,18,
including those of Kava and the Australian Piper novae hollandiae19.
A decoction of Kawakawa leaves was a popular drink for purifying the blood20, as
well as for boils21,22. In more recent years decoctions or infusions have become
popular for a variety of skin ailments including eczema. Kawakawa was taken or
steam baths of it used also for various sexually transmitted diseases including
gonorrhoea23,1,2 and syphilis23,24, as well as for leprosy25,22.
Hot Kawakawa infusions or decoctions have long been a popular treatment for colds
and influenza26, and this probably relates at least in part to the significant diaphoretic
effect produced by such preparations. Expectorant activity due to the volatile oil is
also likely, and these actions, as well as possible anti-microbial effects, probably
contribute to its efficacy in conditions such as colds, influenza, coughs and chest
complaints.
Like other Piperaceae family plants, stimulation of the circulation is an effect of
internal consumption of reasonable doses of Kawakawa preparations. Such activity
could make it useful in conditions such as chilblains, varicose veins, and arterial and
venous insufficiency.
Like Manuka, Kawakawa leaves were once commonly used as a substitute for
tea, and early settlers attributed it with having refreshing and sustaining
properties27. Preparations made from Kawakawa leaves were sometimes
used for their tonic and stimulant properties by those suffering general
debility3.
A poultice or juice application of Kawakawa was one of the most popular of many
treatments used by Maori for cuts, boils, abscesses, septic infections and old
wounds1,28,29,10,12. Steam baths of Kawakawa with other herbs were also used with
some success by women to treat venereal disease23,30. Antifungal activity is shown
by myristicin and elemicin31, and antiprotozoal activities have also been shown for
lignans related to those found in Kawakawa32.
These uses as well as microbiological tests on a series of Kawakawa leaf tinctures
commisioned by Phytomed, implicate significant antimicrobial activity for this plant33.
Copyright Phytomed Medicinal Herbs Ltd. 2007
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Horopito Monograph
Photo: Tony Foster
Botanical Name: Pseudowintera colorata
Common Names: Horopito, New Zealand Peppertree, Winter’s bark,
Red Horopito
Botanical Family: Winteraceae
Part Used: Leaves
Active Constituents:
• Volatile oil - containing eugenol; and polygodial, a bicyclic
sesquiterpenoid dialdehyde
• Tannins
Primary Actions:
• Anti-fungal
• Anti-inflammatory
• Circulatory stimulant
• Stimulating expectorant
• Counter-irritant/rubefacient
• Antiseptic
• Astringent
• Insecticidal
Medicinal Uses:
The main biologically active constituent of Horopito has been identified as the
sesquiterpene dialdehyde, polygodialP(1). Polygodial is a component of the
“hot taste” in peppery spices common in traditional Japanese cuisine(2) and it
has been shown to exhibit significant fungicidal and antibacterial activity(3).
Leaves of the Horopito tree were traditionally used by Maori to treat fungal
and other skin infections, venereal disease, stomach pain and diarrhoea(4).
Early European settlers to New Zealand also used Horopito medicinally,
including infusions of the leaf for internal problems, or simply chewing the
fresh leaves. Skin complaints were treated using bruised leaves which had
been steeped in water or chewed before application(1,5). A decoction of leaves
was used as an analgesic, and the leaves were chewed for toothache.
The antifungal activity of polygodial has been well documented. Researchers
in New Zealand demonstrated the ability of polygodial isolated from Horopito
to inhibit the growth of Candida albicans(1). Other researchers have shown it
to be effective against yeast-like fungi such as Candida albicans, Candida
krusei, Candida utilis, Cryptococcus neoformans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
and also filamentous fungi Trichophyton mentagraphytes, Trichophyton
ruburum and Penicillium marneffei(6). The effectiveness of Horopito in
© Phytomed Medicinal Herbs Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, August 2007
inhibiting the growth of these fungi was shown to be comparable to the
common antifungal pharmaceutical preparation amphotericin B.
The Cawthorn Institute, Nelson, New Zealand showed dried Horopito leaves
to be twice as powerful as sodium caprylate at killing Candida albicans(7).
Preliminary clinical trials have confirmed Horopito’s effectiveness in dealing
with fungal infections(8,9,12). A combination of polygodial with the aniseed
constituent anethole, has been found to produce greater antifungal activity
than seen with polygodial alone(13).
Polygodial has also been shown to have antibacterial(14), anti-inflammatory,
and anti-allergic(15) effects. Antinociceptive or analgesic properties, possibly
mediated via influences on glutamate neurotransmission(16,17,18), or in a similar
manner to those of capsaicin(19), have also been implicated.
Potent gastroprotective effects of polygodial in rats (20,21) and reduced colon
permeability in malnourished mice(22), have been reported. As with its antiinflammatory
effects, modulation of endogenous prostaglandins and nitric
oxide, seem to be involved in these activities.
The marked circulatory stimulant action of Horopito, and vasorelaxant effect of
polygodial(23), implicates possible benefits in conditions of circulatory
insufficiency, such as chilblains, arterial insufficiency, intermittent claudication,
and Raynaud’s syndrome.
Horopito may also be of use in the treatment of respiratory conditions such as
colds, coughs and asthma, probably as a stimulating expectorant.
Adverse effects:
While modest doses may be useful, large doses are best avoided in acute
gastritis or peptic ulcers.
Unlike many biologically active sesquiterpene dialdehydes, polygodial is not
mutagenic(10,11).
Herb-Drug Interactions:
None identified.
Dosage: 10 – 30ml per week of a 1:2 fluid extract.
While not as hot as Capsicum spp when prepared as a hydroethanolic liquid
extract, it is advisable to take daily amounts in 2-3 divided doses to avoid
excessive circulatory stimulation.
©Phytomed Medicinal Herbs Ltd, November 2007.
For a list of references please contact caroline@phytomed.co.nz
© Phytomed Medicinal Herbs Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, August 2007
HOROPITO IN CLINICAL PRACTICE
By Phil Rasmussen
Horopito has become popular during recent years for its apparent antifungal
activity, and this as well as skin wounds and cuts is one of the most common
applications I use it for in my practice, but always combined with other topical
antimicrobials such as Manuka oil and Manuka herb (Kiwiherb Manuka Paint).
Apart from that, I tend to use it internally in those patients with a cold
constitution and weak digestion, where others may prescribe warming herbs
such as Capsicum or Horseradish. Recent research on the effects of
polygodial on the digestive system, are also of great interest, as are its
antinociceptive effects shown by more than one team of researchers. These
both point to the likelihood that Horopito’s traditional reputation as a painkilling
and stomachic herb, useful for much more than fungal infections.
© Phytomed Medicinal Herbs Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, August 2007
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Hoheria Monograph
Botanical Name: Hoheria populnea
Common Names: Hoheria, Houhere, Lacebark, Ribbonwood, Thousand
jacket
Botanical Family: Malvaceae
Part Used: Leaf
Introduction:
Hoheria is a rapidly growing small tree belonging to a genus which is endemic
to New Zealand. Its name derives from its many lace-like layers of inner bark,
which can be torn into ribbon-like strips. Specimens are popular for their
attractive white flowers which appear in Autumn. The fibre of the bark was
once used for clothing, especially in summer as it is somewhat lighter than
flax. It was also plaited into ropes, nets, eel baskets, baby slings and pois(1).
Active Constituents:
• Polysaccharide hydrocolloids (mucilage) – appear to be made up largely
of D-xylose and D-glucuronic acid units(2).
No further information is available on other phytochemical constituents.
Uses:
Most of the medicinal uses to which Hoheria was applied in the early days,
appear to relate largely to its content of mucilaginous polysaccharides, and
there are many similarities between applications of this plant and those of
other phytomedicines rich in polysaccharide hydrocolloids. These include
Slippery Elm bark (Ulmus fulva) and Marshmallow root (Althaea officinalis),
plants which have a strong tradition of use particularly for inflammatory
conditions of the digestive and respiratory systems(3). While polysaccharide
mucilaginous components are poorly bioavailable following oral
administration(4), they are thought to form a protective layer on the mucosa of
the gastrointestinal tract, as well as produce a reflex expectorant effect on the
lungs.
The indications below are based partly on knowledge of historical uses, (some
of which appear to have dated from colonial times, following the introduction
of Slippery Elm as a medicine in New Zealand), as well as extrapolation from
the known uses of comparable mucilaginous plants, and usage of Hoheria by
the author in a clinic setting. Supplies of Slippery Elm bark are obtained
almost exclusively from harvests of wild populations, resulting in concerns to
do with sustainability as well as steadily increasing price(5). Hoheria, as a
rapidly growing tree which is endemic throughout New Zealand, would appear
to have much to offer as an alternative mucilaginous agent for use in
phytotherapy.
© Phytomed Medicinal Herbs Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, August 2007
Possible Internal Indications:
Main indications:
Respiratory conditions – as an expectorant and anti-inflammatory,
including:
• Non-productive coughs and colds
• Bronchitis and asthma
Inflammatory conditions of the gastrointestinal tract – as a demulcent
and gastroprotective agent, including:
• Dyspepsia, gastritis and reflux oesophagitis.
• Peptic ulcer, diverticular disease, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease.
• Enteritis and irritable bowel syndrome.
Other therapeutic uses:
• Constipation – as a bulk laxative, providing large doses are taken
• Obesity – like other soluble fibres, Hoheria may assist as a possible
weight loss agent if taken in sufficient doses, as part of an overall
programme.
• Hypercholesterolemia - various mucilages and other soluble fibres
have exhibited efficacy in the treatment of high blood cholesterol levels,
largely by impairing cholesterol absorption from the gut(6,7). It is
therefore conceivable that large doses of Hoheria may show mild
hypocholesterolaemic activity.
• Diabetes mellitus - while uninvestigated to date, like many fibres
Hoheria may help to retain glucose in the gut and produce a mild
hypoglycaemic affect similar to that of Psyllium seed and other
mucilaginous agents(8,9). Large doses are likely to be required for such
an effect however.
• Painful conditions of the urinary tract - while no evidence exists to
support such indications for Hoheria, mucilaginous plants are reputed
to help in the treatment of kidney stones, cystitis and urethritis, possibly
through a reflex-mediated demulcent action.
• Fevers - a drink made from the bark was also used to treat fevers, and
to ‘cause perspiration when poisoned by the katipo, karaka or tutu’(10).
These historical uses implicate a possible diaphoretic or febrifuge
action.
Topical Uses:
Like many mucilaginous phytomedicines including Slippery Elm, a wide range
of possible topical applications exist. Hoheria bark was bruised into a pulp and
applied as a poultice for boils, bruises, wounds, abscesses, ulcers and burns,
sometimes in combination with Harakeke (Phormium tenax) leaf gel or other
plants(10,11).
Strips of bark soaked in cold water for 2 days to form a thick jelly were also a
popular preparation particularly among elderly people to bathe weak and sore
eyes(12).
© Phytomed Medicinal Herbs Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, August 2007
A soothing and protective emollient action, and anti-inflammatory as well as
antimicrobial effects, appear likely.
Likely Pharmacological actions:
• Demulcent
• Gastroprotective
• Expectorant
• Febrifuge
• Anti-inflammatory
• Anti-microbial
Adverse effects:
No adverse effects, contraindications or herb-drug interactions have been
reported to date.
Preparations:
As a fresh plant preparation, Hoheria leaves can simply be picked from a tree
and chewed and swallowed in order to benefit from their medicinal properties.
It is difficult to prepare a liquid extract or stronger tincture that ‘1 in 4’ strength,
due to the highly viscous nature of the mucilage contained in the leaves.
While some claim that only small doses of mucilaginous plants are often
required, it is the author’s experience that Hoheria can and should in fact be
administered in quite large doses internally to produce therapeutic benefits.
Dosage: 20 – 50ml per week of a 1:2 fluid extract.
Written by Phil Rasmussen. Published in Phytonews 9, Phytomed Medicinal
Herbs Ltd, ISSN 1775-0251, May 2001.
For a list of references please contact caroline@phytomed.co.nz
© Phytomed Medicinal Herbs Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, August 2007
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Kahikatea Monograph
Photo: Tony Foster
Botanical Name: Dacrycarpus dacrydioides (Podocarpus dacrydiodes)
Common Names: New Zealand White Pine
Botanical Family: Coniferae
Part Used: leaves, fruit, bark
Introduction:
Kahikatea is one of the most well known large New Zealand native trees,
usually growing to a height of 25 to 40 metres particularly in swampy ground.
The wood was used extensively for butter boxes until the 1930’s, but its
relative softness and thus inferior properties as a timber, have probably
contributed to its survival as one of the most common large native trees left in
New Zealand today.
Botanically related to Matai (Prumnopitys taxifolia), Miro (Prumnopitys
ferruginea), Rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) and Totara (Podocarpus totara),
the edible fleshy inner part of the berries was eaten by early Maori 5. While
very little information is available on early medicinal uses, leaves and foliage
of Kahikatea were traditionally used for various ailments. These included its
application in vapour baths and as a decoction, for urinary and other internal
complaints 1. A topical application prepared from Kahikatea bark was also
used for bruises, and an infusion prepared from the wood was considered a
good general tonic 2, 3. Kahikatea leaves were also sometimes used instead of
Rimu by Captain Cook’s men as a ‘spruce tree’ to make an anti-scorbutic beer
from, which indicates that they are a good source of vitamin C 6.
Research into podocarpic acid, one of the main terpenoid constituents of
Kahikatea, has revealed potential anti-cancer and mild oestrogenic activities
for this agent and various derivatives.
Active Constituents:
• Podocarpic acid, ferruginol and other diterpenoid resin acids 4, 8
• Norditerpene lactones (podolactones, nagilactones) 9
• Anthocyanidins including glycosides of pelargonidin and others 10
• Tannins
Pharmacology:
Possible oestrogenic activity
The heartwood of Kahikatea, like that of Rimu, consists almost entirely of
podocarpic acid, a substance whose chemistry was studied by early
© Phytomed Medicinal Herbs Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, May 2007
investigators 7, 8. Many simple derivatives of podocarpic acid have
pharmacological activity, and considerable work on the preparation of
pharmacologically active triterpenoid steroids from this substance has been
undertaken by researchers at Searle Laboratories and Auckland University 11,
12.
A paper published in the prestigious journal Nature in 1949, reported the
preparation of podocarpatrienol, a compound which has strong oestrogenic
properties and which is prepared by reduction of podocarpic acid 13. More
recently, an investigation into the feeding habits of the rare New Zealand bird,
the kakapo, studied the possible oestrogenic activity of Kahikatea fruits. While
no evidence of oestrogenic activity was revealed in the recombinant yeast
bioassay used, weak oestrogenic activity was shown for podocarpic acid and
its reduced derivative podocarpinol 14.
The botanically related New Zealand Matai tree (Prumnopitys taxifolia)
contains various other constituents with oestrogenic properties, including the
isoflavone genistein, as well as the lignans matairesinol and conidendrin
which are oestrogenic precursors 7, 15. It is conceivable that Kahikatea fruits
contain oestrogenic precursors as opposed to oestrogenic constituents, and
that like various other phyto-oestrogens or lignan precursors, oestrogenic
activity is enhanced following metabolic modification in the gastrointestinal
tract. Non-fruit parts of Kahikatea, have unfortunately yet to be investigated
for potential oestrogenic activity.
Further evidence of possible oestrogenic activity has been implicated by the
finding that a related Indian species, Podocarpus brevifolius, has an
antifertility actiion in female rats 16.
Antimicrobial
While extracts prepared from Kahikatea have yet to be evaluated for potential
antimicrobial activity, such activity seems likely based upon phytochemical
constituents and traditional uses of closely related species. Possible activities
include:
Antibacterial
Various resin acids have shown antibacterial against selected aerobic Gram
positive and anaerobic Gram negative bacteria 17. These include totarol, a
diterpenoid found in Podocarpus totara (Totara) and various other
Podocarpus and related species, which exhibits strongly antibacterial and
antioxidant properties 18, 19, 20. Ferruginol and derivatives also exhibit
antibacterial activity 21.
Antiviral
Numerous naturally occurring and synthetic diterpenes exhibit antiviral
activities against a range of viruses in vitro. While those found in Kahikatea
have yet to be evaluated for possible antiviral activity, it is of interest that a
derivative of podocarpic acid (180299) has been shown by pharmaceutical
© Phytomed Medicinal Herbs Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, May 2007
company researchers to inhibit viral protein synthesis (replication of influenza
A /Kawasaki /86 virus), in cell cultures 22.
Antifungal
While no direct evidence of antifungal properties for Kahikatea has been
published, various known and likely constituents show such activity.
Pelargonidin glycosides inhibit growth of the pathogenic fungi, Aspergillus
flavus 23, and podolactones isolated from Podocarpus nagi show activity
against various fungal organisms including Candida albicans 24. Fungicidal
activity has also been confirmed for several natural and synthetic
podolactones by Spanish researchers 25.
Anticancer
Many natural diterpenes, such as taxol, also exhibit cytotoxic activities against
several types of cancer cells, and various compounds with potential antineoplastic
activity have been isolated from Pinaceae plants 26, 27. The
antioxidant activities of a number of phenolic diterpenes have also been
attributed with having chemopreventative actions against several cancers 28,
29.
Japanese, Spanish and New Zealand researchers have found that
podolactones isolated from Podocarpus species have significant cytotoxicity
against cancer cell lines in vitro 30,31,25,63. Podocarpic acid and podolactones
also have antileukemic activity, and several synthetic derivatives of
podocarpic acid have shown significant cytotoxicity against human epidermoid
carcinoma of the nasopharynx in vitro 32. Cytotoxic activity has also been
found for podocarpic acid and derivatives on human epithelial and fibroblast
cells 33.
An ethanolic extract of the Nepalese tree Podocarpus neriifolius, showed
antiproliferative activity against two tumour cell lines 34. A lactone compound,
nagilactone C, was found to be contributory to this activity.
Inhibitory effects have also been shown for pelargonidin against the growth of
NK/Ly ascites tumour cells in vitro 35.
Most recently, podocarpic acid derivatives have been shown to inhibit the
release of interleukin 1 beta, a cytokine associated with expression of a
multidrug resistance protein in human colorectal cancer cells 36, 37. While
uninvestigated to date, adjunctive treatment with Kahikatea could thus
perhaps offer potential benefits in certain patients being treated with
chemotherapeutic agents.
Antioxidant
Several Podocarpus diterpenoids including totarol have been shown to protect
biological systems against various oxidative stresses 20, 38, 39. Anthocyanins
© Phytomed Medicinal Herbs Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, May 2007
are also often antioxidant, and antioxidant activity for pelargonidin
anthocyanins found in Kahikatea has been shown to exhibit antioxidant
activity 40, 41, 42.
Pelargonidin and related anthocyanidins are strong inhibitors of nitric oxide
(NO) production, an action which has been associated with antioxidant
properties and beneficial effects on various cardiovascular diseases, renal
failure, and a wide range of other chronic inflammatory conditions 43, 44, 45, 46,
47.
Nitration of tyrosine to reactive NO and other species has recently been
shown to have a potential role in neurodegenerative diseases such as
Parkinson’s 43, hepatotoxicity 61 and bacterial meningitis 44. Protection of
tyrosine nitration by pelargonidin 48 implicates a potential protective effect of
Kahikatea and other pelargonidin-containing plants against these illnesses.
A pronounced radioprotective effect against cytogenetic damage to
fibroblasts, has also been documented for pelargonidin anthocyanidins by
Russian workers 49.
Anti-inflammatory
Traditional uses of Kahikatea bark as a topical application for bruises
suggests a possible anti-inflammatory effect 2. Pelargonidin also shows antiinflammatory
activities in various models of inflammation 50, and is an inhibitior
of cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 and II enzyme inhibitory activities 41. Inhibition of
the release of interleukin-1beta, a pro-inflammatory cytokine, is also produced
by podocarpic acid derivatives 36.
Leaves of a related Podocarpus species, are used “as an alterative and for
rheumatism and painful joints” 62.
These effects along with the inhibitory activity against NO production by
pelargonidin and related anthocyanidins, point to a possible anti-inflammatory
activity for Kahikatea extracts and potential benefit in various chronic
inflammatory conditions.
Cardiovascular agent
The antioxidant and nitric oxide inhibitory activities of Podocarpus terpenoid and
anthocyanidin constituents may contribute to beneficial or protective effects in
various cardiovascular conditions such as hyperlipidaemia, atherosclerosis or heart
failure. Antihypertensive activity in rats has also been shown for ferruginol 51, 52.
A podocarpic acid derivative, acetyl-podocarpic dimer (APD), has been found
to act as a potent and selective agonist for both LXRalpha and LXRbeta
nuclear receptors 53. These are intracellular sensors of cholesterol excess
whose activation by various oxysterols is implicated in the prevention and
© Phytomed Medicinal Herbs Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, May 2007
treatment of atherosclerosis, especially when High Density Lipoprotein (HDL)
levels are low. Potential application for Kahikatea as a treatment for
hypercholesterolaemia has yet to be investigated.
Other possible activities
Urinary agent
Berries of kahikatea were regarded as having stimulating and diuretic
properties 54, and several early writers described use of a decoction of the
leaves for urinary complaints 1, 55, 56.
Anti-diabetic
A derivative of pelargonidin has produced improvement in glucose tolerance
and enhanced insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells in animal studies,
implicating possible application for these substances in the management of
diabetes mellitus 57.
Choleretic
Kahikatea has a strongly bitter taste, and choleretic activity has been reported
for podocarpic acid derivatives 58. This indicates a possible application of this
plant in the management of conditions associated with a weak digestion as
well as liver impairment.
Insecticidal
Inumakilactone A and nagilactone C, norditerpene lactones found in the
leaves of Podocarpus nivalis, P hallii, P nagi and P macrophyllus, have been
shown to possess potent insecticidal activity 59, 60.
Possible Indications:
Topically:
• Bruises and other inflammatory conditions
• Mild bacterial infections
Internally:
• Chronic inflammatory conditions (eg. renal failure, rheumatic
conditions)
• Reduction of cardiovascular disease risk parameters
• Alleviation of menopausal symptoms
• Adjunctive treatment / prevention of various cancers
• Management of conditions associated with a weak digestion/liver
impairment
Adverse effects:
None known, although the strong bitter effect of Kahikatea requires care in
some situations, such as in those with active peptic ulceration or dyspepsia.
Dosage: 20 – 50ml per week of a 1:2 fluid extract.
© Phytomed Medicinal Herbs Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, May 2007
Written by Phil Rasmussen. Published in Phytonews 12, Phytomed Medicinal
Herbs Ltd, ISSN 1775-0251, June 2002.
For a list of references please contact caroline@phytomed.co.nz
© Phytomed Medicinal Herbs Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, May 2007
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